10 US Cities with aboriginal based names

1. Tuscaloosa, Alabama

(derived from Muskogean words tashka (warrior) and lusa (black). Chief Tuskaloosa is remembered for leading a battle against Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto in southern Alabama in 1540)

2. Tucson, Arizona

(from Pima O'odham cuk ṣon, "black base")

3. Tallahassee, Florida

(from the name of a Creek town, talahá:ssi, perhaps from (i)tálwa, "tribal town" + ahá:ssi, "old, rancid")

4. Chicago, Illinois

(derived from the French rendering of a Miami-Illinois word for a type of wild onion)

5. Topeka, Kansas

(from Kansa dóppikʔe, "a good place to dig wild potatoes")

6. Milwaukee, Wisconsin

(from an Algonquian word Millioke, meaning "Good", "Beautiful" and "Pleasant Land" or "Gathering place [by the water]")

6. Saginaw, Michigan (and Missouri)

(from an Ojibwa (Chippewa) word meaning “land of the Sauks”)

7. Yazoo City, Mississipi

(from the name of the river and a local tribe on it)

8.Tuxedo, Maryland
(may derive from the Lenape epithet Tùkwsit 'the Wolf Clans' or from Munsee Delaware p'tuck-sepo 'crooked river')
9. Montauk, New York
(from the Montaukett tribe, an Algonquian-speaking tribe who lived in the area)
10. Wyoming, Nebraska
(Derived from a corrupted Delaware word meaning "large plains" or "extensive meadows.")

The American Indian

A friend in Cyprus recommended the book American Indian by the late R J Rushdoony recently on Goodreads and I was able to pick up a kindle version very cheaply (see here). It is a collection of 20 slightly overlapping essays on the subject from various times. if you grew up in the sixties like me, playing cowboy and Indians and watching old westerns on TV then you will already be interested in the subject. Rushdoony lays some myths to rest and writes sympathetically towards the native American and deprecatingly of most US government attempts to "solve the problem". Some of his assertions may sound controversial if you are not a aware of or sympathetic too the wider work of his Chalcedon Foundation. The essays are well written and a well thought out and will repay reading to any thinking Christian, whether the needs of native Americans are high on your agenda of interests or not. It would be good to hear that other Rushdoony materials currently hidden away in old magazines are being given similar treatment. The editorial work on this volume is of a high standard. PS If you're worried not a trace of theonomy or even post-millennialism in these pages.

CYSK 12 David Brainerd

Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

David Brainerd (1718–1747) was an American missionary to the Native Americans who had a particularly fruitful ministry among the Delaware Indians of New Jersey. During his short life he was beset by many difficulties. As a result, his biography (penned by the great Jonathan Edwards) has become a source of inspiration and encouragement to many Christians, including missionaries such as Carey, Jim Elliot and Brainerd's cousin, the Second Great Awakening evangelist James Brainerd Taylor (1801–1829). Despite his expulsion from Yale (for a youthfully rash pronouncement on one of the lecturers' faith), the University later named a building after him (Brainerd Hall at Yale Divinity School), the only building on the campus to be named after a student who was expelled. He was indirectly responsible for the founding of Dartmouth and Princeton Colleges.

AHOCIA 100 Objects 23

Bio 12 Mary Rowlandson

In my reading I recently came across a reference to a book I was unaware of. Published in 1682 in America, it is called The Sovereignty and Goodness of God ... Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson.

Relatively little is known about Rowlandson (1637-1711). Wikipedia says she was a colonial American woman born Mary White in England and who lived in the frontier village of Lancaster, Massachusetts. She was the daughter of one of the town's founding fathers and she married Joseph Rowlandson in 1656. Her husband was ordained a Puritan minister in 1660. At sunrise, on February 10, 1676, during King Philip's War, the bloodiest war in American colonial history, Lancaster came under attack by a band of Naragansett Indians. She was the mother of three: Joseph, Mary and Sarah, and was among the hostages taken that day. For 11 weeks and five days she was forced to accompany her captors as they fled through the wilderness to elude the colonial militia, under what she describes as horrible conditions. In simple, artless prose she recounts the stages of the odyssey in 20 distinct "Removes" or journeys. She witnessed the murder of her friends, the death of one of her children, and suffered starvation and depression, until she was finally reunited with her husband. On May 2, 1676, she was ransomed for £20 raised by the women of Boston in a public subscription, and paid by John Hoar of Concord at Redemption Rock in Princeton.
During her captivity, Mary's youngest child, Sarah, died, while the remaining two were separated from her; nevertheless, Rowlandson continued to seek guidance from the Bible - the text of her narrative is replete with verses and references describing conditions similar to her own. She saw her trial as a test of faith and considered the "Indians" to be "instruments of Satan". Her final escape, she tells us, taught her "the more to acknowledge His hand and to see that our help is always in Him."
Until recently, it has been assumed that she died before her narrative was published. However, more recent historical research indicates that Mary Rowlandson re-married after the death of her husband and lived as Mary Talcott till January 1711, thus reaching an age of approximately 73 years.
The book, however, not only became one of the era's best-sellers, going through four editions in one year, but also earned her an important place in the history of American literature. Her book is a frequently-cited example of a captivity narrative, an important American literary genre used by James Fennimore Cooper, Ann Bleecker, John Williams and James Seaver. Because of Rowlandson's intimate relationship with her Indian captors, her book also is interesting for its treatment of cultural contact. Finally, in its use of autobiography, typology, and in its homage to the Jeremiad, Rowlandson's book helps the reader understand the Puritan mind.

A tough-minded, independent woman, she never lost her faith in God while dwelling in a "lively semblance of hell." A modern writer has said "Her voice is singular — one of the first strong voices of a woman writing about her experience in North America — and her memoir became a model for later writers, who often wrote about periods of crisis that were also times of spiritual transformation." Below is the extract that struck me. There is more here.

By their noise and hooping they signified how many they had destroyed (which was at that time 23) those that were with us at home, were gathered together as soon as they heard the hooping, and every time that the other went over their number, these at home gave a shout, that the very earth rang again. And thus they continued till those that had been upon the expedition were come up to the Saggamor's wigwam; and then, oh the hideous, insulting and triumphing that there was over some English mens scalps, that they had taken (as their manner is) and brought with them. I cannot but take notice of the wonderful mercy of God to me in those afflictions, in sending me a Bible: One of the Indians that came from Medfield fight, and had brought some plunder, came to me, and asked me if I would have a Bible, he had got one in his basket, I was glad of it, and asked him if he thought the Indians would let me read? He answered 'yes' so I took the Bible, and in that melancholy time it came into my mind to read first the 28th Chapter of Deuteronomy, which I did, and when I had read it, my dark heart wrought on this manner, that there was no mercy for me, that the blessings were gone, and the curses came in their room, and that I had lost my opportunity. But the Lord helped me still to go on reading, till I came to Chapter 30, the seven first verses; where I found there was mercy promised again, if we would return to him, by repentance; and though we were scattered from one end of the earth to the other, yet the Lord would gather us together, and turn all those curses upon our enemies. I do not desire to live to forget this Scripture, and what comfort it was to me.

10 Algonquian words we know

We are aware of a limited number of Native American words in our vocabulary. Some are not every day words (such as the Algonquin Tomahawk [axe weapon and now missile]; Wigwam [His house - a Native American dwelling] and the Cree word squaw). Apart from place names most of the words seem to be from two Algonquian languages - Algonquin and Cree (my attributions may well be wrong - don't write).

Algonquin

1. Caribou - a type of reindeer
2. Caucus - advisor - a political committee
3. Moccasins - shoes
4. Pecan - a type of nut
5. Racoon - a nocturnal animal
Cree
6. Moose - North American elk
7. Pow wow - he dreams - A big meeting (originally a medicine man's conference).
8. Skunk - American carnivore that emits a strong smell
9. Squash - the vegetable
10. Chipmunk - North American ground squirrel

 

From Algonquin we also get terrapin (a freshwater tortoise) and from Cree, Eskimo (eaters of raw flesh. Eskimos call themselves "Inuit"); Opossum (small tree-dwelling American marsupial).

Other words worth noting here are toboggan (Micmac), totem (Ojibwa) and Tepee (Sioux).

For more see here

Bio 7g2 David Brainerd

Crossweeksung
On June 19 Brainerd wrote of Kaunameek where he first was (a 'lonely melancholy desert') and the Forks of the Delaware where he now was 'Not having had any considerable appearance of success in either of those places, my spirits were depressed, and I was not a little discouraged.' His expeditions along the Susquehanna had not given him reason to expect success anywhere there either.
It was at this time that he heard of a group of Indians at a place called Crossweeksung, about 80 miles south east of the Forks of Delaware. He arrived there June 19, 1745, and spent two weeks among them and saw a real interest in the gospel. Upon his return to the Forks, the people there seemed more responsive too. On July 21 he baptised Tatamy and his wife, his first converts among the Indians. Moses Tatamy was in his fifties by this time. He had once been a hard drinker but under Brainerd's influence had slowly come to faith.
Then back in Crossweeksung he experienced the most glorious week of his life. Under William Tennent's ministry the small group had been sustained and had grown but on August 8 the power of God came down as Brainerd preached to a group of about 65 and many genuine conversions took place in a short time. Brainerd writes

There was much visible concern among them while I was discoursing publicly; but afterwards when I spoke to one and another more particularly, whom I perceived under much concern, the power of God seemed to descend upon the assembly like a rushing mighty wind, and with an astonishing energy bore down all before it.
I stood amazed at the influence that seized the audience almost universally, and could compare it to nothing more aptly than the irresistible force of a mighty torrent or swelling deluge, that with its insupportable weight and pressure bears down and sweeps before it whatever is in its way. Almost all persons of all ages were bowed down with concern together, and scarce one was able to withstand the shock of this surprising operation. Old men and women who had been drunken wretches for many years, and some little children not more than six or seven years of age, appeared in distress for their souls, as well as persons of middle age. And it was apparent these children (some of them at least) were not merely frighted with seeing the general concern; but were made sensible of their danger, the badness of their hearts, and their misery without Christ, as some of them expressed it. The most stubborn hearts were now obliged to bow. A principal man among the Indians, who before was most secure and self-righteous, and thought his state good because he knew more than the generality of the Indians had formerly done, and who with a great degree of confidence the day before, told me 'he had been a Christian more than 10 years,' was now brought under solemn concern for his soul, and wept bitterly. Another man advanced in years, who had been a murderer, a powow, (or conjurer,) and a notorious drunkard, was likewise brought now to cry for mercy with many tears, and to complain much that he could be no more concerned when he saw his danger so very great.

Brainerd now proceeded to disciple these young converts. Meanwhile as news travelled, more and more Europeans and Indians were coming to hear the young preacher. On August 25, he baptised 25 of the Indians (15 adults, 10 children). After the years of prayer and suffering fruit was beginning to be seen.
Brainerd was still concerned about the Indians along the Susquehanna River and he spent the period September 9-28 in the area. Despite several interesting encounters he saw no apparent success. Back at Crossweeksung on October 5, on the other hand, he was overjoyed at the response to the gospel he was seeing. Others were converted and baptised. On November 14 he baptised 14, bringing the number to 47, including 12 from the Forks. On November 4 he had reflected on the revival in his diary, making six points.
1. The timing of it – when Brainerd felt at his very weakest and had all but given up hope.
2. Its suddenness – At the first meeting in Crossweeksung there were only 4 women and a few children, yet suddenly the work just took off.
3. The way the Indians' prejudices were overcome – Despite much opposition from white men
4. God's provision of an interpreter – Moses Tatamy's important role should not be overlooked.
5. The content of the preaching – Not so much the Law as the gospel and God's mercy. The lack of too much emotion, something revivalists were often accused of, gave Brainerd encouragement too
6. The practical results in the lives of the Indians.
On December 22 he preached on the rich young ruler. In his diary he relates how, speaking to a woman later she spoke in broken English saying

'Me try, me try, save myself, last my strength be all gone, (meaning her ability to save herself,) could not me stir bit further. Den last, me forced let Jesus Christ alone, send me hell if he please.' I said, But you was not willing to go to hell, was you? She replied,'Could not me help it. My heart he would wicked for all. Could not me make him good;' (meaning she saw it was right she should go to hell because her heart was wicked, and would be so after all she could do to mend it). I asked her, how she got out of this case? She answered still in the same broken language, 'By by my heart be glad desperately.' I asked her why her heart was glad? She replied, 'Glad my heart Jesus Christ do what he please with me. Den me tink, glad my heart Jesus Christ send me hell. Did not me care where he put me, me love him for all,' &c. And she could not readily be convinced but that she was willing to go to hell, if Christ was pleased to send her there. Though the truth evidently was, her will was so swallowed up in the divine will, that she could not frame any hell in her imagination that would be dreadful or undesirable, provided it was but the will of God to send her to it.

Brainerd had taught them well. This was the sort of selfless testimony he and Edwards wanted to hear. God-centredness was what they craved.
It was during this period that Brainerd was twice the subject of unkind and untrue rumours. He was firstly accused of intending to lead his Indians in an unarmed insurrection and then accused of being a covert Roman Catholic seeking to use the Indians against the English cause. As ridiculous as such suggestions were their very existence proved a trial to Brainerd as one can imagine.
Brainerd not only taught the people but also catechised them and helped them with their practical needs. Some had debts that he arranged to be discharged. On January 31, 1746, a schoolmaster appointed by Brainerd arrived with a dozen primers for them. In February he visited Indians back at the Forks 'under great weakness and some pain'. Some from Crossweeksung accompanied him. They persuaded some of the believers to join them in Crossweeksung.
About 150 now followed him and looked to him for direction. He encouraged these scattered Indians to develop Spring planting at a settlement he had picked out at what was originally a Scots settlement 15 miles distant called Cranberry (now Cranbury). He later called it Bethel. They cleared the land in March and by May had moved to the new settlement. His attempts to turn the converts into farmers, however, were not very successful.
On April 27 the Indians took the Lord's Supper. In less than a year 77 people (38 adults) had been baptised. The lives of these people had been permanently changed. What happy situation Brainerd now found himself in. He continued to know some depression and still at times bemoaned his relative ineffectiveness. It was an attractive situation, however. But in his heart were the pagan Indians of the Susquehanna River area where he had already failed three times to make headway. Finally, on August 12, 1746, he left his friends at Cranberry, who had been very much in prayer for this trip, and with six Indian evangelists begun on his fourth journey there. He had previously not gone further west than the 'Indian capital' Shamokin, but now he wanted to go another hundred miles to a site near present day Lockhaven, Pennsylvania.
This trip finally broke his health completely, and he had to curtail much of it. One wonders why he went on such an arduous journey. In truth, such was his passion for Christ that he simply could not confine himself to one spot. Back at Shamokin on September 6, he clung to life, 'coughing and spitting blood'. On September 20 he arrived back at Cranberry. He now realised that the tuberculosis in his lungs was going to destroy his body. There was some guilt at having so recklessly injured his health and aggravated the illness but it is probably true to say that his zeal and outdoor life had done something to preserve him, as we know his problems had started several years before, while still at Yale.
On October 6, he had his last blessed day at Cranberry, taking the Lord's Supper with 40 converts. He also baptised two adults. He had now seen 85 Indians converted. November 3 was his last day as pastor of the flock in Cranberry. He spent the long winter in Elizabethtown with Dickinson. Rallying in health he made a last visit to his Indian converts March 18-20, 1747, bidding them farewell for what was to be the last time.

Bio 7b David Brainerd

3. He was a missionary to people he called Indians, what we now call Native Americans, descendants of America's earliest inhabitants.

Over the years, since the arrival of white men, those not absorbed into the dominant population had steadily moved westward from New England into the States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and beyond. Animistic in religion their contact with uncaring Europeans tended to encourage only laziness, drunkenness and constant debt. Attempts had been made to evangelise them (the work of Puritan John Eliot 1604-1690 stands out) but by 1675 it was suggested that there were only some 4,000 'Praying Indians'.
Brainerd worked among Native Americans from many tribes in several different places. He first preached to Indians near New York in August, 1742. On April 1, 1743, under the auspices of the Society in Scotland for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded 1701), he began a ministry at Kaunaumeek, between Stockbridge, Massachusetts and Albany, New York (now Brainard, NY, 18 mls SE of Albany – named for a Brainerd descendant). Just over a year later he arrived at the Forks of the Delaware River, E Pennsylvania (near the present city of Easton) where he did further work. In June, 1745 he began work among Native Americans in Crossweeksung (now Crosswicks, near the present town of Freehold, 9 miles SE of Trenton, NJ). Just under a year after that, in 1746, with a company of Native Americans, he moved 15 miles north west to Cranberry, near Newark, New Jersey, where he engaged in his final months of labour. It was in these latter places that he knew most success.